Motivation and Management : Flexybility of the Implementition of Motivation Theories in Pesantren Context

Motivation is viewed as the driving force that is employed to strengthen individuals for improving their performance so as to achieve well-established organizational goals. It is necessary to note that this driving force results from both intrinsic and extrinsic factors. Motivation theories, which were derived from Western countries, have been examined its implementation in business, industry, and education organizations there. Nonetheless, that the motivation theories are not strictly implemented in the other half of the world. For instance, an educational institution such as pesantren (Islamic boarding school), whose organizational culture is much different from a formal one, has flexibly applied those theories of motivation. It can be noticed that the implementation of Abraham Maslow’s Hierarchy Theory and McClelland’s Needs Theory extremely depends on intellectual capital and organizational culture aspects of the pesantren.


A. Driving Elements of Motivation
Individuals' motivation is determined by its stimulus.The stimulus in question is the driving force of their motivation so that it affects the behavior of the persons.According to Sagir, the driving elements of someone's motivation include several aspects as follows. 7

Achievement
Someone who has achievement as a need can help achieve his/her established goals.David McCleland promotes that the level of need for achievement (N-Ach) is the key of someone's success.N-Ach usually relates to positive attitudes and decisiveness to take calculated risks (not gambling) for achieving the determined goals.

Recognition
A recognition of someone's achieved performance is a strong motivation.The recognition of someone's achievement will give higher emotional satisfaction than reward in the form of materials or presents.For example, recognition in the form of award certificate or medal is able to become a stronger stimulus compared to the rewards in the form of present or bonus/money.

Challenge
The presence of challenge to be faced becomes strong motivation for human beings to overcome.Unchallenging or easily achieved goals cannot be a stimulus, even tends to be daily routines.Challenges by challenges are supposed to foster passion for looking for the problem-solving.

Responsibility
Having a sense of belonging (rumongso handarbeni in Javanese language) tends to provide strong motivation to be responsible for.Total Quality Control (TQC), in example, which was originated from Japan, has successfully created a sense of collective responsibility to employees from the top level to the bottom one in yielding a certain product.

Development
Someone's skill development, either from work experiences or opportunities, can also become strong motivation for an individual to work harder and more passionate.Moreover, organizational development always concerns productivity and performance of its members.

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A sense of involvement in any form of decision-making process by the members of an organization can be strong motivation for them to be advanced and high achieving.This sense will create senses of belonging, responsibility, and being respected by the management.Those senses of involvement will also create a sense of self-cautiousness to work better and produce higher quality products.

Opportunity
The opportunity to develop, including in the form of open career opportunities from the bottom level to the highest one (top level management) constitutes strong motivation for employees.Working without hope or chance to achieve any development or improvement does not tend to be a stimulus for valuable and productive results in working.

Financial Compensation
One of the forms that is most frequently given to employees is financial compensation.Almost all people will do anything for improving their earnings and preventing their source of income to be taken by others.The fear of losing job and source of money is a very effective working stimulus because money is needed for sustainability of life.Money has been correlated to the most fundamental instinct or maybe the strongest among other biological instincts.Compensation in the form of food is not an extraordinary thing, but compensation in the form of money have developed its reputation to be an effective stimulus.8

Direction and Control
Direction refers to leading members of organizations to what they should do and what they should not do.Meanwhile, control is the activity of assigning the organization members related to the instructed tasks.Both of them demonstrate that stimuli have grown and been applied by companies for long time and have been still used by managers to motivate employees nowadays.
Directorial functions cope with various standard operational processes, guidance, manual book, and even Management by Objective (MBO).Conversely, control functions include performance assessment, quality control, and work outcome assessment.In this context, the former is determining and forbidding particular kinds of behavior, whereas the latter is measuring the work results and interfering whenever the results achieved by employees are considered unsatisfactory.9

Establishing Effective Work Pattern
Generally speaking, reactions towards boredom at work create significant restrictions for work productivity.Because the management realizes that the problems come from how the work is managed, they respond with various techniques, both effective and ineffective techniques.These techniques involve work enrichment (adjusting the work demand with someone's ability), participative management (involvement the worker in decision-making), and the efforts to reduce employees' boredom such as giving break time or providing sufficient facilities.The effective work pattern adjustment according to employees' needs cannot be carried out without the change within the company's internal culture.Frequently, the change occurs, but in really slow pace.Some companies successfully adapt to the need of challenging tasks, whereas other companies conduct ineffective research and development and tend to stand in different perspectives.For this reason, profit obtained by companies that can adapt successfully tends to make the left-behind companies realize the new reality.10

Policy
Policy can be regarded as an act deliberately taken by management to alter the attitude or feeling of the organization members.The most commonly-taken policies to develop employees' performances are through training or short courses in managerial behavior and many others.These policies should deem that management is able to make the company and the social need of employees in significant growth as well as to assign greater responsibility to the employees. 11urther, the comparison between driving force elements and forms of motivation can be noticed in the following table.Robbins, however, classifies the theories of motivation based on historical dynamics.Firstly, Early Theories of Motivation formulated three theories during that period, namely:

Table 1. Comparison between Driving Force Elements and Forms of Motivation Driving Force Elements of Motivation
(1) Theory of Hierarchy of Needs (Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs), (2) Theory X and Theory Y (MacGregor's X and Y Theories), and (3) Hygiene Theory of Motivation (Herzberg's Two-Factor Theory).The early theories are deemed for at least two reasons (1) these theories are the foundation or basis of contemporary theories, and (2) managers are still using these theories and terminology regularly in explaining employee motivation. 13econdly, Contemporary Theories of Motivation include (1) McClelland Theory of Needs, (2) Goal-Setting Theory, (3) Reinforcement Theory, (4) Equity Theory, and (5) Expectancy Theory.14

Content Theories of Motivation
Content theories constitute theories that focus on factors within a person who is energizing, directing, sustaining, and stopping behavior.Strictly speaking, the content theories are aimed at understanding "human needs" and how individuals with different needs respond to different work situations.In other words, needs are something that is required for survival.

a. Hierarchy of Needs Theory (Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs)
One of motivation theories that is widely-known is the theory of Abraham Maslow, a psychologist from the University of Wisconsin, the United States of America, in 1950's.Thus, no wonder if his theory of needs was based on psychological theories.Maslow proposes that the hypothesis within man dwells five levels of needs as follows.15

1) Physiological Need
Physiological need is the most basic need that must be fulfilled by an individual.If this need has not, other needs may become neglected.The physiological need includes clothing, food, a shelter/house, and biological needs such as defecation, urination, breathing, and so forth.The first three needs mentioned to be a priority of each person since without the fulfillment of these needs, otherwise the individual will be undoubtedly difficult to survive.

2) Security and Safety Needs
The needs for safety and security are the second-level need once the physiological need is well-perceived.These needs involve being free from colonialism, free from threats, free from pain, free from terror, and so on.Principally, the needs can be categorized into safety and protection against both physical and emotional losses.

3) Social/Belonging Need
Once the security need that becomes a part of personal needs begins being met, social/belonging need arises as a result of human as a social creature (homo socius) who cannot live without the existence of other human beings.Individuals start feeling the need | 103 to be well-received, to get friends, to love and to be loved by someone, to experience the need for family, and so on.

4) Esteem Need
After individuals feel accepted and have a position, they begin feeling the need for appreciation from others.This need copes with the need for praise in terms of achievement, autonomy, and rewards.This is due to self-respecting factors such as selfesteem, autonomy, and achievement as well as respect for external factors, including status, recognition, and attention.

5) Self-actualization Need
This need is the culmination of those human needs highlighted after all their needs can be fulfilled and gain steadiness.This need is in the form of a driving force to become someone/something in accordance with his/her ambition, involving growth, potential attainment, and self-fulfillment.Those needs suggest that human motivation is strongly influenced by the basic needs that are required to be fulfilled.The Maslow's needs must meet the primary needs before moving on the secondary needs.It indicates that to be able to feel the pleasure of a higher level of needs, human beings require lower level of needs to be fulfilled first.In the Herzber's point of view, there are two types of factors that encourage a person to feel satisfied and avoid themselves from the feeling of dissatisfaction.He called these two factors hygiene factors/'maintainer' (extrinsic factors) and motivator factor. 17he former aims to motivate a person to get out dissatisfaction, to prevent the decline of motivation or efficiency.The improvement in the extrinsic factors tends to reduce or eliminate work dissatisfaction, including interpersonal relationships, rewards, environmental conditions, and so on (extrinsic factors), whereas the motivator (intrinsic) factors have impacts on increasing achievement or job satisfaction as well as motivating someone to achieve satisfaction, involving achievement, recognition, progress of life level, and so forth.The two Herzberg's factors of satisfaction can be summarized in the following table.The motivation theory that combines internal motivation and external motivation was developed by Douglas McGregor, an American social psychologist.In his research project, McGregor examined general motivation as well as the behavior of certain organization members and formulated the differences between two basic theories of human behavior.Both theories are called Theory X (Negative) and Theory Y (Positive). 18raditional theories about organizational life are much directed and controlled on the basis of Theory X.These theories cover (1) most workers are lazy, do not like to work, and will avoid their jobs when they are possible; Because they basically do not like to work, they must be forced, controlled, treated with punishment, and directed to achieve wellestablished organizational goals; (2) most workers prefer being guided, avoiding responsibility, having little ambition, taking into account that their security is the most important priority; and (3) most workers place a sense of security over all other factors related to work and show little ambition. 19otivation and Management….. 97-111 (Ahmad Ta'rifin)  | 105

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Theory X could not answer all the facts that exist in the organization.Therefore, McGregor responded with the Y theory, which was stated more realistically.According to the theory Y, the nature of humans' behavior is inconsistent with the assumptions of the theory X.The individuals behave as these theory assumptions since they obtain certain treatment in the organization.
Further, Robbins asserts that the assumptions of theory Y are (1) the physical and mental efforts that human beings perform in working constitute the human nature, as well as playing or taking a rest; (2) people tend to be self-directed and self-control if they are committed to achieve goals; (3) most human beings are willing to learn under decent conditions, not only accepting but also seeking responsibility; (4) there are great abilities in ingenuity, creativity, and imagination in solving problems within organizations that are widely demonstrated to all employees; (5) external control and punishment are not the only ones to mobilize efforts in achieving organizational goals; (6) the close relationship to organizational goals is a function of acceptance received because of its achievement in achieving those goals; and (7) organizations should give employees the possibility to realize their potential and not to be used partially. 20n other words, the main bases of theory Y are integration and cooperation.By employing the two bases, employees may achieve their own goals through their contribution to the achievement of organizational goals, in which they commit themselves.
Theories X and Y are further developed with Theory Z proposed by William Ouchi (1981), an American, who researched on employee's work motivation in companies located in the United States of America and Japan, which turned out to be different.The theory Z assumes that security is particularly important.In the Japanese management system, security is assured since most employees have a lifetime employment in one company.This Japanese-style organization is committed to this long-term relationship while in America, the company style is different.It can be noticed from 1) short-term working system, 2) frequent evaluation and promotion, 3) bonus system and wage based on productivity, 4) careers by specialization, 5) monitoring mechanisms (hierarchy), 6) decision-making by the leadership, and 7) individual responsibility. 21eory Z also emphasizes the development of trust relationships between employer and employees.The emphasis is based on the assumption that people's motivation is primarily internal.However, those feelings must be reinforced by a clear commitment to the employees from the employer/leader.Theory Z views that collective decision-making and group responsibilities provide the social support needed for achieving a top performance.It may happen through the creation of a sense of security, which allows employees to generate their new ideas without fear of rejection or fear of failure.

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Overall, theory Z is embodied in seven principles, namely: 1) lifetime employment, 2) slow promotion and evaluation, 3) non-specialized career path, 4) consensual (collective) decision-making, 5) collective responsibility, 6) implicit control mechanism, and 7) holistic concern. 22he differences of motivation among Theory X, Theory Y, and Theory Z can be noticed in the following table.

d. McClelland's Theory of Need
In addition to the theory of motivation based on Abraham Maslow's hierarchy of needs, there is also a motivation theory based on the need suggested by McClelland.
McClelland pioneered thinking work motivation, developed theory-based achievement and motivation models, and promoted the betterment of employee assessment methods as well as assessment and test competency-based advocacy.His ideas have been widely adopted in various organizations.According to McClelland, a person is considered to have high achievement motivation if he/her has a willingness to perform better than others in many situations.
Robbins mentions that David McClelland explained three types of motivation, namely: (1) motivation for achievement/performance (need for achievement/n-Ach), (2) motivation for power (need for power/n-Pow), and (3) motivation for affiliation (need for affiliation/n-Aff).These three needs have proven to be pivotal elements that contribute to personal achievement in various work situations and ways of life.This McClelland's research shows that achievement motivation can be gained through training by teaching someone to think and do with achievement motivation. 23otivation and Management….. 97-111 (Ahmad Ta'rifin)  | 107

Process Theories of Motivation (Process Theories)
Process theories describe and analyze how behavior is reinforced, directed, supported, and discontinued.These theories offer an understanding of how people make choices about whether they are going to work hard or not based on their individual choices, available rewards, and resulted work outcomes.

a. Expectancy Theory
Expectancy theory relates to one's expectations and how to influence behavior.The idea of the theory proposed by Victor Vroom in the middle of 1960's argues that individuals tend to act what they do if they are willing to do it.It indicates that there is a tendency to act in a certain way based on the expectancy that the action will be followed by a particular outcome and the attraction of the outcome to others.
In the Victor Vroom's point of view, people are motivated to work if they: (1) expect that enhanced efforts will lead to certain remuneration and (2) assume remuneration as a result of their efforts.The key to this theory is to understand and manage employees' goals and to integrate business, performance, and rewards.This theory deems that efforts refer to the ability of the employees, training, and development.Meanwhile, performance constitutes a valid assessment system, and rewards are understanding the needs of employees.
Besides, expectancy (work-performance relation) is viewed as the belief that the number of efforts will produce a certain performance.Instrumentality (work-reward relation) deals with the belief that working at a certain level becomes a means to achieve expected results.Meanwhile, valence (the attraction of reward) covers the weight placed on the person to the potential results or rewards that can be achieved in the workplace.24

b. Equity Theory
The theory of equity on motivation is well-known through the work of J. Stacy Adams.The main point of this theory is that perceived injustice is a motivating condition, in which when employees believe that they have been unjustly treated in comparison to others, they will try to reduce discomfort and restore a sense of equity to the situation. 25his theory states that an employee tends to compare between the input he/she contribute to work in the form of education, experience, training, as well as efforts and the results or rewards the employee receives, including comparing the remuneration that other ones received with what he/she received for the same job.
On the one hand, awards that are considered fair tend to have a positive result.On the other hand, the ones that are perceived as unfair may create dissatisfaction and degrade performance.Additionally, possible responses to injustice involve changing work input -reducing work levels, changing the reward received -requesting the improvement of reward system, changing reference -trying to make situations look better, and changing the situations -moving or quitting work. 26Not to mention, an additional equity statement relates to the matter of comparable worth, which is the concept that employees who work with the same value based on the education, training, and skills required will receive the same salary.

c. Edwin Locke's Goal Theory
Goal theory is included in the process theories suggested by Edwin A. Locke and has been very popular since 1970's.This theory points out that the intentions of working towards a goal or a major source of work motivation. 27It reveals that the goals tell a person in terms of what to do and how much effort to do.People are highly-motivated to achieve specified goals.Conversely, they tend to be lowly-motivated to work if the work goals are not well-established.People who have specified and more 'challenging' goals in their tasks are more likely to demonstrate greater work motivation than people whose work goals are unspecified or too easy to be achieved.

d. Reinforcement Theory
According to Robbins, the reinforcement theory views that human behavior is determined by the consequences resulted from the environment.Without reinforcement, no measurable behavior modifications occur. 28anagers often use positive reinforcement to modify behavior.In several cases, the reinforcement works as it is expected beforehand.In other cases, the reinforcement does not modify behavior in expected directions because of the possibility of competitive reinforcement.If the reinforcement is not incorporated into the manager's expected behavior, the expected behavior will not occur.Similarly, if new reinforcement is provided after the expected behavior occurs, the possibility of expected behavior to occur may be reduced.In short, this theory is based on Thorndike's law of effect, in which the behavior that produces a pleasant outcome tends to be repeated.On the contrary, another behavior that produces unpleasant outcomes tends not to be repeated.

D. Implementation of Motivation of Theories in Pesantren Context
Elaborating the possibility of applying motivation theories in Indonesian education, especially traditional educational institutions such as pesantren (Islamic borading schools), is not easy, for at least there are two reasons.Firstly, pesantren is a non-formal traditional educational institution -if what is meant is a salafiyah pesantren (traditional Islamic boarding schools) that only teaches kitab kuning (Islamic books in Arabic script printed in yellow paper) -which have different organizational systems and culture from formal educational institutions such as primary school/Islamic primary school, junior high school/Islamic junior high school, and senior high school/Islamic senior high school.The organizational systems and culture of pesantren vis-a-vis these formal schools are frequently compared each other.It can be noticed from the curriculum, leadership patterns, learning methods and processes, interaction patterns between kiai/teacher-santri/students, settlement patterns, and so on.Understandably, formal educational institutions in Indonesia constitute the ones that adapt the colonial system emerged during the ethical politics of the Dutch East Indies in 1905 to 1942.Meanwhile, pesantren emerged as a resistance demonstrated by kiai (teachers in pesantren) and Muslim citizens against the colonial school system.Therefore, pesantren is often referred to as indigenous educational institution which was born from Indonesian people. 29econdly, motivation theories that are pointed out by several experts, both content theories of motivation and process theories of motivation, were born from Western culture, and these theories are very different from Eastern culture.This reality illustrates that motivation theories resulted from -empirically -the existing organizational issues in America and attempted to solve the problems that occurred there.It indicates that motivation theories are relevant to be applied to business and education organizations in those areas.
For this reason, since the motivation theories emerged, Robbins has warned us that "do not forget!Motivation theories are culture-bound!" 30 It means that the theories are restricted in character or outlook by belonging or referring to a particular culture. 31e, further, suggests several theories that could be different in their implementation in other countries or culture, including Maslow's hierarchy of needs theory and Edwin A. Locke's goal setting theory. 32f Maslow's theory of needs that comprises five levels, namely: (1) physical need, (2) security, (3) social need, (4) self-esteem, and (5) self-actualization (the first and second needs are categorized into lower-level (external) needs, whereas the third, fourth, and fifth ones are classified into higher-level (internal) needs), are carried out on certain conditions requiring that (1) individuals must satisfy the lower-level needs before they can satisfy the higher-level ones, (2) satisfied needs are no longer motivating, and (3) the individuals' motivation depends on his/her hierarchy level, these needs have to be hierarchically implemented in the pesantren culture.It reveals that this implementation is obviously impossible.
Santri's (students in pesantren) culture of life in pesantren covers modest culture, qana'ah (accepting what it is), self-consciousness, and humane interaction for 24 hours a day.At the lower-level needs (physical need and security), it is impossible for santri to meet the elements of the two needs.It is known that for the needs of the food, they do not choose their food and side dishes.Likewise, it can be noticed that they live in a modest residence and dress in simple clothes.Gender relationship between male and female santri is strictly limited.Moreover, they sleep on mats and receive basic personal safety and health.As a result, no wonder that there is a term "santri gudig" (those who have an itch).If the santri have not had this skin problem, they cannot be 'officially' called a santri.
The discussion of motivation theories in various literature leads to two major theories, namely: Content Theories of Motivation and Process Theory of Motivation. 12HIKMATUNA Volume 4 Number 1 2018